ADMINISTERING EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS

Robert C. Moore

Elizabethtown College

THE FOUNDATION OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Experiential learning has been often thought of as activity-based learning or even internships--practical experience. But the philosophical foundations on which it has been based go far beyond active learning. Popularly labeled as "theory into practice," experiential learning is more appropriately characterized as praxis.

Praxis translated into English means practice. But the philosophical concept does not deal with mundane experience or activity. Aristotle intended praxis to include the study and application of theory and of knowledge to life.

Sartre built upon this integrated focus of learning by advancing consciousness as a key element of praxis. "To be a consciousness...is to make choices...In making such choices we are choosing what we are to become...We make these choices reflectively...or prereflectively...but we are always choosing and thereby always acting." (Bernstein, p. 141)

These visions provided for Dewey’s theory of education "a sense of life, process, and the concreteness of experience itself." (Bernstein, p. 167) Dewey believed that experience was founded in knowledge--"an affair of the intercourse of a living being with its physical and social environment." (Bernstein, p. 203) While many philosophers have seen theory as separate and apart from experience, Dewey saw theory as integral to experience and, as a result, experience a key factor in knowing and rethinking theory.

Based on Dewey’s assimilation of philosophical views on learning and experience, his own theory of education was one of a continual process of reconstruction in which a learner’s experience is guided and systematic. Experience creates a situation in which the student makes a "connection" between himself or herself and the subject. Dewey believed that the student was to be "equipped with both ‘critical consciousness’ of themselves and their place in society and the tools, knowledge, motivation, and roles with which to effectively participate in the world and improve it...linking theory and practice through field experience and critical reflection was the only means for effective, progressive education." (Stanton, p. 144) "Students who use information they are trying to learn, who challenge and grapple with their new knowledge, or who use it to solve new problems, tend to learn more effectively than students who passively read, memorize, or merely absorb that to which they have been exposed." (Jernstedt, p. 358)

Joplin (1995) said, "that anytime a person learns, he must "experience" the subject--significantly identify with, seriously interact with, form a personal relationship with, (the subject)." (p. 15) She "connects" with Dewey in that learning can be generally successful when a learner is actively involved in the experience.

An experiential learning program can be described as an integrated and purposeful effort to manage experiences, make it more likely that learners will make connections, and to provide for on-going curricular experiences to make the overall learning experience more meaningful and valuable in career preparation.

EXPERIENCE CAN BE A TOOL FOR LEARNING

In communication and media education programs, internships have been most often associated with experiential learning where students pursuing professional preparation have been passively indoctrinated that these opportunities are an important part of their education. By and large, these opportunities have been seen as jobs, experiences, field placements, or mentoring that is ancillary to a student’s curriculum of study. This perceived market need on the part of academé, has resulted in a trend to incorporate experiential education as fashionable, yet isolated, internships into the curriculum. This trend has often made professional programs appear as technical, non-intellectual, or vocational in nature.

A well-designed professional curriculum provides a sound foundation in the liberal arts with critical thinking and problem solving attributes along with internships and other experiential opportunities. The issue of importance, here, is that experiential education must be integrated as a key component of the intellectual learning process across the curriculum. Such a sophisticated approach to learning serves the academy and its various constituencies better than a narrow technical/ vocational curriculum.

Bell (1995) said that the theory of what experience does is more important than the actual experience. "Experience, according to Dewey, is...a social relationship. He sees experience as a relationship between the individual and their environment, a replicable interaction in which meanings are found." (p. 11) Furthermore, Dewey believed that learning is evolutionary. For experiential learning, that means a process which one may go through. The emphasis here may be on "one" and on "process." Experiential learning is an individually significant event -- a personal connection. The experiences one is exposed to may be group efforts, but the merit of the experience is grounded in intrapersonal value or significance to the learner. Beyond active learning, most valuable is the reflective process which should be built into an experiential education program.

Druian, Owens and Owen (1995) cited six common elements of a learning sequence at the root of experience. They were: application and generalization, sharing and publishing, reflecting and evaluating, engaging and experiencing, negotiation and planning, assessment and goal setting. Expanding on the reflective stage, the authors indicated its importance to learning as "transforming the raw material of the experience...in a form that can be shared by others." (p. 21) Joplin (1995) concurred, noting that reflection is the mechanism which directly and consciously connects the experience to the student’s learning.

Joplin developed a five-stage model which attempts to conceptualize this need for a reflective process (see figure 10.1). Essentially providing a schematic for experiential planning, Joplin focused on a "central...challenging action...preceded by a focus and followed by a debrief. Encompassing all is the environment of support and feedback." (p. 16)

There is an inherent need in experiential education for the learner to be assisted prior to, during, and after the experience so that efforts are not wasted; to try and ensure that success is eventual and meaningful. Reflection, or debrief, is the conception and articulation of meaning; the recognition of learning from the experience -- Dewey’s connection.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

Long a hallmark of higher education, the Socratic method - a teacher centered structure of instruction - negates the philosophical basis of a learner-centered paradigm. Often, professional programs, especially those utilizing technology, offer as their alternative to the lecture, educational "activities" that more often than not, are adjunct to the learning process - not integrated into the process.

A curriculum integrating experience actively engages learners in well-designed problem solving situations in which they draw upon knowledge and truth. Chapman, McPhee and Proudman (1995) outlined a methodology of the development of experiential education to include: "mixture of content and process, absence of excessive teacher judgement, engaged in purposeful endeavors, encouraging the big picture perspective, teaching with multiple learning styles, (integrating) the role of reflection, creating emotional investment, re-examination of values, presence of meaningful relationships, (and) learning outside of one’s perceived comfort zone." (p. 246)

The important aspects of learner-centered experiential education, valuable to fulfilling the goals of the academy include providing a foundation of knowledge and information which may be evaluated, analyzed, and validated by the learner through their experiences. Jon Wagner described such a program which effectively integrated three traditions of experiential education--group process, simulations, and field experience..." (Stanton, p. 145) These traditions can be manipulated to occur in a variety of learning situations in and out of the classroom.

These categories of learner-centered experiences build upon a focus on critical thinking. A student is placed in a challenging environment in which he/she can assess and solve a problem by engaging that knowledge actively to create a solution that has value to the learner. Activities are never designed to be the last step of the process. It is imperative to provide for criticism, judgement and reflection upon the learner’s performance in applying knowledge and skills. Experience is a step in the process of learning itself. Faculty are encouraged to incorporate learning experiences into the classroom leading to more competence in learning and ability. As confidence grows, students are then able to progress to a new level of more independent learning involving more sophisticated activity and assessment, often out of the classroom.

Williamson, in "Designing Experiential Curricula" (1995), provided a model similar to the above conceptualization of what a curriculum should do (See Figure 10.2). A good experiential curriculum design concept goes far beyond that of "experience" often cited by professionals and academics in debating curricular needs responsive to an industry. Rather than "separate or isolated components, [it is] a holistic experience," (Moore, 1992) it represents an integration of liberal and professional study.

DESIGN OF AN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAM

Stark and Lowther (1988), characterized competent professionals by "their ability to link technical knowledge with appropriate values and attitudes when making complex judgements." ( p. 1) "Building from this...understanding of the profession and the discipline, a student is...able to develop three other essential professional competencies: technical, integrative (melding theory, practice and setting), and marketability" (Moore, 1992). Toffler described such a person as a "new worker...(they) accept responsibility...understand how their work dovetails with that of others, who can handle even larger tasks, who adapt swiftly to changed circumstances, and who are sensitively tuned into people around them." (p. 385) Kendall (1986) cited the challenge to education in A Nation at Risk: Another View, as providing both general competence and specific job skills which may not be of immediate use but will allow professionals to meet the changing needs and new skills of the future workplace. (p. 11)

Jernstedt (1995) characterized such programs as "meld(ing) the structures of knowledge with the process of using knowledge." (p. 359) A basis for this approach is that students will use their knowledge and the information gathered to plan, design, and produce original projects that integrate various types of expression learned and mastered in the courses taken throughout the curriculum. For communication and media programs, this means a general professional program designed to educate a "compleat communicator (who) must be able to write well, speak and listen intelligently, communicate through media, develop a sense of aesthetics, and demonstrate creative expression." (Moore, 1994, p. 162)

A sequential and integrated experiential learning program seemed to be an effective way to reach these goals. (Moore, 1985) Characteristics of such an approach to learning include: the faculty member as a coach, mentor and observer; application of knowledge and skills, experimentation, and assessment that requires that the learner be permitted to make mistakes or to conceive of alternate approaches to problems or situations; and, a final assessment made to determine the level of acquired knowledge, mastery of skills, and the ability to problem solve with original and creative solutions. The professional communicator of tomorrow will be someone who is cross-trained through a flexible, fundamental and integrated media education program (Blanchard & Christ, 1993).

In developing programs that integrate experiential learning into the curriculum, several underlying assumptions would need to be made explicit:

THE ELIZABETHTOWN COLLEGE COMMUNICATIONS MODEL

OF INTEGRATED EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

The model, first developed in 1985, evolved to incorporate a hierarchical approach to providing experiential learning opportunities. Goals of such a program included both intellectual and social/professional development. The learning increased in quantity, quality and expectations of students progressing through the many levels of the experiential curriculum as they amassed additional knowledge. Experiential opportunities were not merely available, but a priority of most faculty and most required in the curriculum.

Garvey and Vorsteg (1995) presented a stage theory approach to learning which helped to explain the model. Based upon many and varied theories of social scientists they indicated that,

Their four phases of theory integration, moving from theory into practice, were related to students studying experiential education applying classroom learning to actual leadership positions. The four phases were: exhilaration, rejection, integration, and transformation. The phase theory is applicable to experiential education in general and useful in describing how students might move through the Elizabethtown model. Incremental and progressive intellectual and experiential development is important to student learning. Hierarchical and sequential processes not only allowed for the phases mentioned, but also enabled individual intellectual and experiential growth as a maturing process critical in learning.

In the first stage, exhilaration, students were introduced to the field, its various theories and practices, as well as enticed into initial application of skills whetting their appetite as a communications professional. In a somewhat managed environment, students experienced general application of elementary skills.

Based on applying these skills as a result of specific theory, often students agitate for more advanced work and more obvious relevance to specific career desires. The second phase of the theory follows-- rejection. Students sometimes experience frustration and may conclude that their learning was not directly relevant to those reasons they chose this facet of career education or preparation.

Yet, as Garvey and Vorsteg point out, the students were able to recognize that many of the techniques and aspects of their learning had relevance. (p. 301) Upon reexamining their learning of theories and practice, students move to the third stage--integration. It was at this point in their learning that students merged their knowledge and experiences with developmental opportunities to form a connection or link between themselves and their performance.

In the last stage, transformation, students begin to move from a learner mode to a more professional behavior. At this level, which was characterized by advanced experiential opportunities and upperclass status, students should emerge as "compleat" communicators. Students "use their knowledge and the information gathered to plan, design and produce original projects...as solutions to problems...for real-world clients." (Moore, 1994, p. 162) These key opportunities for transformation of learning and the self, occur for students in internships and are assessed in a capstone course experience. (See Moore, 1994).

The four phase theory of integration was generally descriptive of the foundational philosophy of the Elizabethtown College Department of Communications Model of Integrated Experiential Education which is made up of five hierarchical stages of theory and practice.

This model (See Figure 10.3) was represented by an inverted superimposed triangle over another triangle. The inverted triangle was designed to show the progression of learning cognitive and affective material from a very basic introduction to the discipline and profession to a more broad-based knowledge at the end of studies. The second vertical triangle displays a student’s exposure to varied learning experiences which become progressively more focused and proficient as they proceed in their studies. These various experiential components provide for "direct participation in events...knowledge, skill, or practice derived from direct observation of or participation in

Fig. 10.3 Elizabethtown College Department of Communications

Hierarchical Model of Integrated Experiential Learning

©Robert C. Moore, 1985, 1996.

events...something personally encountered, undergone, or lived through..." (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 1975, quoted in Jernstedt, p. 359) The experiences were either part of a course, a component of the program, or an experiential course itself.

With the progression of students through sequentially organized opportunities and courses, new learning experiences were added to the increasing expectations of their professors. In the introductory and first year courses (stage 1), students were presented with elementary skill sets unique to the courses in which the learner was enrolled. Expectations of students included a classroom-based individual and group activities and the development of assessment abilities to evaluate their performance. A focus included students working in cooperative teams, exposure to role responsibilities, and development of elementary professional standards.

Stage 2 of the model was labeled "applied communication." Primarily organized around four media activity requirements, students continued to practice past skill sets along with acquiring new and relevant experiences in a public arena (radio, television, print media or forensics) while adopting more professional standards and attitudes for their performances. A primary focus at this level was service to a particular media/communications group and segment of the community. These requirements were designed to be second and third year level expectations.

As the student approached the third year of studies, advanced courses incorporate more focused experiential learning opportunities (Stage 3). These generally were client projects requiring an out of class, off campus, professional contact for which real problems were assessed and knowledge and abilities applied as a solution to them. Basic skill sets have been developed in the freshman and sophomore years. Proficiency was now the focus. The faculty member functioned as a guide, consultant and mentor. The projects were generally short term and had focused expectations for satisfactory performance in the class and for the client.

In the third year of study, a student who has reached a level of proficiency was able to elect experiential opportunities that have a more professional focus (stage 4.) These out of class experiences, practica and internships, were related but have differing purposes. Enrolling in a practica removed the learner from the actual classroom and placed them with a professional client as a member of their staff. Here they accepted responsibilities on a part-time basis performing alongside a professional mentor. Typical guidelines require a minimum of 10 hours of active engagement with the sponsoring organization every week for a full semester.

Those students who have truly excelled and have met other qualifying criteria like an above average GPA, may elect an internship. Expectations for active commitment included a full-time position for an entire semester. Here, it was expected that they assume a position with regular duties mentored by a professional.

In both of these instances, practica and internships, a faculty member was assigned to the student. The faculty member’s duties were to monitor performance, assess activities and integrate reflection and meaning to the experience as a learning tool and not as simply an activity.

Performance was monitored with telephone calls to the student’s supervisor, at least one (but usually two) site visits, and by a weekly submission of a journal by the student. This journal, not to be confused with a log of activities, had as its primary function an assessment of the week’s responsibilities. It was a retrospective analysis of key perceptions of duties, events, issues, and people encountered. Students were asked to place the analysis in the context of past learning and career development.

Activities were assessed through routine visits and by midterm and final evaluations conducted with the supervisor and student. However, monthly on campus seminars focused on a discussion and evaluation of experiences by all students with the faculty member. The focus of the sessions was to reflect and give meaning to the experience.

Finally, as summative reflective assessments, the student completed an ethnographic study of the field setting including its culture and staff behaviors. A research project accompanies the study which analyzes the theories encountered, evaluates the operation and goals of a typical site as it compares to the ethnographic study, and assesses the value of prior learning in the student’s normal course of study to the experience.

Other exercises designed to bring meaning to the experience included: literature summaries of articles directly related to issues, duties or responsibilities encountered; a final project as an expression of the learning experience; and a final evaluation report assessing the overall experience.

All students in completing their BA in Communications enroll in the capstone course, Communications Seminar, stage 5 of the model. Functioning as an instrument to summarize and integrate the previous seven semesters of learning, the course requirements incorporated expectations that the students demonstrate satisfactory completion of all of the curricular goals and objectives. Taking the form of an independent student learning experience, the faculty member guides and mentors the student in the preparation of a portfolio, senior applied research thesis and oral defense, and the production of a substantial and fully research related senior project. Course expectations and requirements were structured so that in completing the course satisfactorily, the learner has met all of the expected outcomes of the curriculum and was able to be awarded the degree. (See Moore, 1994)

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Conrad and Heden (1995) undertook the Evaluation of Experiential Education Project to assess the various claims of experiential educators and to determine if the touted benefits to students did, in fact, happen. While the study focused on secondary school students, the variables measured (psychological, social, and intellectual development,) were the same elements on which experiential programs in higher education are based. It may be possible to infer the results of this study to post-secondary education. However, a definitive study is needed at that level.

They reported the following findings. Experiential education programs did have a positive impact on the psychological, social, and intellectual development of the student participants. (p. 387-394)

Psychological Development

Social Development

Intellectual Development

In finding the correlates of effectiveness in the study, Conrad and Heden examined program features, student characteristics and characteristics of individual experiences. While clear patterns were found, no clear practice guaranteed effectiveness. (p. 394-398)

Program features

Student Characteristics

Characteristics of Experience

The results of the study show experiential programs as a "powerful educational vehicle for promoting personal and intellectual development and can do so more effectively than classroom instruction." (p. 398)

CONCLUSION

The administration of experiential learning programs goes far beyond various logistics of offering courses, learning activities, and internships. While such administrivia has a place of importance in operation, the issues surrounding the management of programs are far more complex.

The administrator is a curriculum developer. As such, knowledge is integrated with a wide variety of progressive learning experiences which make it likely that a student will make personal and professional connections between knowledge and skills. Little is accomplished if such experiences are isolated events separated from actual learning. Additionally, without serious reflection, experience seldom provides an interactive or significant relationship to the individual.

Integrated experiential learning programs join liberal studies and professional education as holistic experiences. Cognitive, attitudinal, and psychomotor development occur hand-in-hand leading to proficiency and marketability of the student. Without such a vision, experience seldom prepares a student beyond skills for today. Yet, in an ever changing world, the more integrative learning enables a broader range of problem solving and applicability of skills for new demands to be placed on professionals in the future.

Successful experiential programs, like that at Elizabethtown, require complete support and participation of faculty, involvement of nearly all courses, incremental and progressive building of knowledge and skills, as well as, a method of culminating demonstration, evaluation and reflection.

Actual administrative structures for these programs can vary from fully institutionally centered to a departmental structure like the one at Elizabethtown. Perhaps the most beneficial structure is a hybrid which allows for a coordination of efforts from both levels. Institutional advantages include: central efficiency, joint management of resources, institutional advocacy; departmental advantages give the program: academic integrity, a discipline focus, and management and interaction by regular faculty seeking to make the experiences more a part of learning.

Experiential learning programs are an opportunity for individuals to demonstrate and apply what they have learned. Properly constructed, broad-based skill sets are able to be integrated and advanced to a level of proficiency while applying them to increasingly complex problems as knowledge or intellectual ability develops. Ultimately, cognitive, attitudinal and psychomotor learning converge in the ‘compleat’ communicator -- the new professional.

APPENDIX A: EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

ASSOCIATION FOR EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION (AEE)

2305 Canyon Boulevard, Suite #100

Boulder, CO 80302

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION (NSEE)

3509 Haworth Drive, Suite 207

Raleigh, NC 27609-7229

Email: nsee@datasolv.com

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